Field dependent–independent cognitive style and creativity from the process and product-oriented approaches: a systematic review
Abstract
Creativity is a multifaceted construct that can be defined both in terms of process (e.g.,divergent thinking) and product (e.g., a poem). Across years, it has been related to different cognitive and personality variables, including cognitive styles. The current systematic review aimed to summarize the literature on the relationships between field dependence–independence and creativity, considering both the creative process and creative production approaches. We selected eight studies using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses rules. Findings revealed that a consistent number of studies focused on creative process mainly in terms of divergent thinking instead of convergent thinking, also providing misleading results. Additionally, only two studies focused on creative production, showing that field independents were more creative than field dependents. Given the contradictory results and the paucity of studies, we concluded that the association between field dependence–independence and creativity needs to be further investigated by more accurate empirical explorations. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.
Keyword : cognitive styles, creativity, divergent thinking, field dependence–independence, real-world creative production, systematic review
How to Cite
Giancola, M., Palmiero, M., & D’Amico, S. (2022). Field dependent–independent cognitive style and creativity from the process and product-oriented approaches: a systematic review. Creativity Studies, 15(2), 542–559. https://doi.org/10.3846/cs.2022.15988
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
Abraham, A. (2018). Cambridge fundamentals of neuroscience in psychology. The neuroscience of creativity. Cambridge University Press.
Acar, S., Tadik, H., Myers, D., Sman, van der C., & Uysal, R. (2021). Creativity and well‐being: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Creative Behavior, 55(3), 738–751. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.485
Amabile, T. M. (2018). Creativity in context: Update to the social psychology of creativity. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429501234
Amabile, T. M. (1982). Social psychology of creativity: A consensual assessment technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(5), 997–1013. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.997
Arbuthnott, K. D., & Sutter, G. C. (2019). Songwriting for nature: Increasing nature connection and well-being through musical creativity. Environmental Education Research, 25(9), 1300–1318. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2019.1608425
Bagley, Ch., & Mallick, K. (1998). Field independence, cultural context and academic achievement: A commentary. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68(4), 581–587. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1998.tb01313.x
Baranovská, A., Petlák, E., & Doktorová, D. (2017). Relationship between dimensions of creativity, dependency and independency from the field, need and ability to achieve cognitive closure. AD ALTA: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 7(2), 14–19.
Batt, R., Palmiero, M., Nakatani, Ch., & Leeuwen, van C. (2010). Style and spectral power: Processing of abstract and representational art in artists and non-artists. Perception, 39(12), 1659–1671. https://doi.org/10.1068/p6747
Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: The common and differential involvement of executive functions in intelligence and creativity. Intelligence, 46, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007
Bloomberg, M. (1967). An inquiry into the relationship between field independence-dependence and creativity. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 67(1), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1967.10543058
Bloomberg, M. (1971). Creativity as related to field independence and mobility. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 118(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1971.10532588
Borland, J. H. (1988). Cognitive controls, cognitive styles, and divergent production in gifted preadolescents. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 11(4), 57–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235328801100407
Caldara, R., Zhou, X., & Miellet, S. (2010). Putting culture under the “Spotlight” reveals universal information use for face recognition. PLoS One, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009708
Chávez-Eakle, R. A., Eakle, A. J., & Cruz-Fuentes, C. (2012). The multiple relations between creativity and personality. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.649233
Cropley, A. J. (1990). Creativity and mental health in everyday life. Creativity Research Journal, 3(3), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419009534351
Cropley, A. (2006). In praise of convergent thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 18(3), 391–404. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1803_13
Fancourt, D., & Steptoe, A. (2019). Effects of creativity on social and behavioral adjustment in 7- to 11‐year‐old children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1438(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13944
Fergusson, L. C. (1992). Field independence and art achievement in meditating and nonmeditating college students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75(3), 1171–1175. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1992.75.3f.1171
Fergusson, L. C. (1993). Field independence, transcendental meditation, and achievement in college art: A reexamination. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77(3), 1104–1106. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1993.77.3f.1104
Fink, A., & Woschnjak, S. (2011). Creativity and personality in professional dancers. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(6), 754–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.024
Frith, E., Elbich, D. B., Christensen, A. P., Rosenberg, M. D., Chen, Q., Kane, M. J., Silvia, P. J., Seli, P., & Beaty, R. E. (2021). Intelligence and creativity share a common cognitive and neural basis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(4), 609–632. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000958
Giancola, M., Palmiero, M., Piccardi, L., & D’Amico, S. (2021). The contribution of planning to real-world creativity: The moderating role of agreeableness. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100890
Guilford, J. P. (1967). Creativity: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Journal of Creative Behavior, 1(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.1967.tb00002.x
Hee Kim, K. (2008). Meta-analyses of the relationship of creative achievement to both IQ and divergent thinking test scores. Journal of Creative Behavior, 42(2), 106–130. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2008.tb01290.x
Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2009). Beyond big and little: The Four C model of creativity. Review of General Psychology, 13(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013688
Kaufman, J. C., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2010). The Cambridge handbook of creativity. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511763205
Kozhevnikov, M., Ho, Sh., & Koh, E. (2021). The role of visual abilities and cognitive style in artistic and scientific creativity of Singaporean secondary school students. Journal of Creative Behavior, 56(2), 164–181. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.522
Kozhevnikov, M., Kosslyn, S., & Shephard, J. (2005). Spatial versus object visualizers: A new characterization of visual cognitive style. Memory and Cognition, 33(4), 710–726. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195337
Lao, J., Vizioli, L., & Caldara, R. (2013). Culture modulates the temporal dynamics of global/local processing. Culture and Brain, 1(2–4), 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40167-013-0012-2
Lei, W., Deng, W., Zhu, R., Runco, M. A., Yun Dai, D., & Hu, W. (2021). Does cognitive style moderate expected evaluation and adolescents’ creative performance: An empirical study. Journal of Creative Behavior, 55(1), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.439
Li, Ch., Mu, X., Tan, Y., Gu, Ch., Hu, B. Y., & Fan, C. (2020). Do field-dependent individuals tend to have lower creativity than field-independent ones? The role of informational cues in electronic brainstorming. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1821715
Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P. J., Kleijnen, J., & Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62(10). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.006
Martinsen, Ø. (1997). The construct of cognitive style and its implications for creativity. High Ability Studies, 8(2), 135–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359813970080202
Mefoh, Ph. C., Nwoke, M. B., Chukwuorji, J. C., & Chijioke, A. O. (2017). Effect of cognitive style and gender on adolescents’ problem solving ability. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25, 47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.03.002
Miller, A. L. (2007). Creativity and cognitive style: The relationship between field-dependence–independence, expected evaluation, and creative performance. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1(4), 243–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/1931-3896.1.4.243
Niaz, M., Saud de Núñez, G., & Ruiz de Pineda, I. (2000). Academic performance of high school students as a function of mental capacity, cognitive style, mobility–fixity dimension, and creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 34(1), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2000.tb01200.x
Noppe, L. D. (1985). The relationship of formal thought and cognitive styles to creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 19(2), 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.1985.tb00641.x
Noppe, L. D., & Gallagher, J. M. (1977). A cognitive style approach to creative thought. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41(1), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4101_14
Palmiero, M., Giulianella, L., Guariglia, P., Boccia, M., D’Amico, S., & Piccardi, L. (2019). The dancers’ visuospatial body map explains their enhanced divergence in the production of motor forms: Evidence in the early development. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00768
Palmiero, M., Guariglia, P., Crivello, R., & Piccardi, L. (2020). The relationships between musical expertise and divergent thinking. Acta Psychologica, 203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102990
Palmiero, M., Nakatani, Ch., & Leuween, van C. (2017). Visual creativity across cultures: A comparison between Italians and Japanese. Creativity Research Journal, 29(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2017.1263514
Palmiero, M., Nori, R., & Piccardi, L. (2016). Visualizer cognitive style enhances visual creativity. Neuroscience Letters, 615, 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2016.01.032
Qian, M., Plucker, J. A., & Yang, X. (2019). Is creativity domain specific or domain general? Evidence from multilevel explanatory item response theory models. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2019.100571
Riding, R. J., & Pearson, R. D. (1987). The relationship between art performance, extraversion and field-independence in secondary-age pupils. Research in Education, 38(1), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/003452378703800103
Rosengren, S., Eisend, M., Koslow, S., & Dahlen, M. (2020). A meta-analysis of when and how advertising creativity works. Journal of Marketing, 84(6), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242920929288
Runco, M. A., & Acar, S. (2012). Divergent thinking as an indicator of creative potential. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.652929
Saeki, N., Fan, X., & Dusen, van L. (2001). A comparative study of creative thinking of American and Japanese college students. Journal of Creative Behavior, 35(1), 24–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2001.tb01219.x
Saracho, O. N. (1992). Preschool children’s cognitive style and play and implications for creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 5(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419209534421
Saurenman, D. A., & Michael, W. B. (1980). Differential placement of high-achieving and low-achieving gifted pupils in grades four, five, and six on measures of field dependence-field independence, creativity, and self-concept. Gifted Child Quarterly, 24(2), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698628002400207
Shao, Y., Zhang, Ch., Zhou, J., Gu, T., & Yuan, Y. (2019). How does culture shape creativity? A mini-review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01219
Silvia, P. J., Wigert, B., Reiter-Palmon, R., & Kaufman, J. C. (2012). Assessing creativity with self-report scales: A review and empirical evaluation. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 6(1), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024071
Spotts, J. V., & Mackler, B. (1967). Relationships of field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles to creative test performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24(1), 239–268. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1967.24.1.239
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (1997). Are cognitive styles still in style? American Psychologist, 52(7), 700–712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.7.700
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its development. Human Development, 34(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277029
Wang, Y., Huang, Q., Davison, R. M., & Yang, F. (2021). Role stressors, job satisfaction, and employee creativity: the cross-level moderating role of social media use within teams. Information and Management, 58(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2020.103317
Witkin, H. A., & Asch, S. E. (1948). Studies in space orientation: IV. Further experiments on perception of the upright with displaced visual fields. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(6), 762–782. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0053671
Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field–dependent and field–independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47(1), 1–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543047001001
Yuanxi Lee, L., Talhelm, Th., Zhang, X., Hu, B., & Lv, X. (2021). Holistic thinkers process divided-attention tasks faster: From the global/local perspective. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01879-1
Zhang, L. (2017). The value of intellectual styles. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316014561
Acar, S., Tadik, H., Myers, D., Sman, van der C., & Uysal, R. (2021). Creativity and well‐being: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Creative Behavior, 55(3), 738–751. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.485
Amabile, T. M. (2018). Creativity in context: Update to the social psychology of creativity. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429501234
Amabile, T. M. (1982). Social psychology of creativity: A consensual assessment technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(5), 997–1013. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.997
Arbuthnott, K. D., & Sutter, G. C. (2019). Songwriting for nature: Increasing nature connection and well-being through musical creativity. Environmental Education Research, 25(9), 1300–1318. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2019.1608425
Bagley, Ch., & Mallick, K. (1998). Field independence, cultural context and academic achievement: A commentary. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 68(4), 581–587. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1998.tb01313.x
Baranovská, A., Petlák, E., & Doktorová, D. (2017). Relationship between dimensions of creativity, dependency and independency from the field, need and ability to achieve cognitive closure. AD ALTA: Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 7(2), 14–19.
Batt, R., Palmiero, M., Nakatani, Ch., & Leeuwen, van C. (2010). Style and spectral power: Processing of abstract and representational art in artists and non-artists. Perception, 39(12), 1659–1671. https://doi.org/10.1068/p6747
Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: The common and differential involvement of executive functions in intelligence and creativity. Intelligence, 46, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007
Bloomberg, M. (1967). An inquiry into the relationship between field independence-dependence and creativity. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 67(1), 127–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1967.10543058
Bloomberg, M. (1971). Creativity as related to field independence and mobility. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 118(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1971.10532588
Borland, J. H. (1988). Cognitive controls, cognitive styles, and divergent production in gifted preadolescents. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 11(4), 57–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/016235328801100407
Caldara, R., Zhou, X., & Miellet, S. (2010). Putting culture under the “Spotlight” reveals universal information use for face recognition. PLoS One, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009708
Chávez-Eakle, R. A., Eakle, A. J., & Cruz-Fuentes, C. (2012). The multiple relations between creativity and personality. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.649233
Cropley, A. J. (1990). Creativity and mental health in everyday life. Creativity Research Journal, 3(3), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419009534351
Cropley, A. (2006). In praise of convergent thinking. Creativity Research Journal, 18(3), 391–404. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1803_13
Fancourt, D., & Steptoe, A. (2019). Effects of creativity on social and behavioral adjustment in 7- to 11‐year‐old children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1438(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13944
Fergusson, L. C. (1992). Field independence and art achievement in meditating and nonmeditating college students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75(3), 1171–1175. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1992.75.3f.1171
Fergusson, L. C. (1993). Field independence, transcendental meditation, and achievement in college art: A reexamination. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77(3), 1104–1106. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1993.77.3f.1104
Fink, A., & Woschnjak, S. (2011). Creativity and personality in professional dancers. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(6), 754–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.024
Frith, E., Elbich, D. B., Christensen, A. P., Rosenberg, M. D., Chen, Q., Kane, M. J., Silvia, P. J., Seli, P., & Beaty, R. E. (2021). Intelligence and creativity share a common cognitive and neural basis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(4), 609–632. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000958
Giancola, M., Palmiero, M., Piccardi, L., & D’Amico, S. (2021). The contribution of planning to real-world creativity: The moderating role of agreeableness. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100890
Guilford, J. P. (1967). Creativity: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Journal of Creative Behavior, 1(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.1967.tb00002.x
Hee Kim, K. (2008). Meta-analyses of the relationship of creative achievement to both IQ and divergent thinking test scores. Journal of Creative Behavior, 42(2), 106–130. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2008.tb01290.x
Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2009). Beyond big and little: The Four C model of creativity. Review of General Psychology, 13(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013688
Kaufman, J. C., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2010). The Cambridge handbook of creativity. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511763205
Kozhevnikov, M., Ho, Sh., & Koh, E. (2021). The role of visual abilities and cognitive style in artistic and scientific creativity of Singaporean secondary school students. Journal of Creative Behavior, 56(2), 164–181. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.522
Kozhevnikov, M., Kosslyn, S., & Shephard, J. (2005). Spatial versus object visualizers: A new characterization of visual cognitive style. Memory and Cognition, 33(4), 710–726. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195337
Lao, J., Vizioli, L., & Caldara, R. (2013). Culture modulates the temporal dynamics of global/local processing. Culture and Brain, 1(2–4), 158–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40167-013-0012-2
Lei, W., Deng, W., Zhu, R., Runco, M. A., Yun Dai, D., & Hu, W. (2021). Does cognitive style moderate expected evaluation and adolescents’ creative performance: An empirical study. Journal of Creative Behavior, 55(1), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.439
Li, Ch., Mu, X., Tan, Y., Gu, Ch., Hu, B. Y., & Fan, C. (2020). Do field-dependent individuals tend to have lower creativity than field-independent ones? The role of informational cues in electronic brainstorming. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1821715
Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P. J., Kleijnen, J., & Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62(10). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.006
Martinsen, Ø. (1997). The construct of cognitive style and its implications for creativity. High Ability Studies, 8(2), 135–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359813970080202
Mefoh, Ph. C., Nwoke, M. B., Chukwuorji, J. C., & Chijioke, A. O. (2017). Effect of cognitive style and gender on adolescents’ problem solving ability. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 25, 47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.03.002
Miller, A. L. (2007). Creativity and cognitive style: The relationship between field-dependence–independence, expected evaluation, and creative performance. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1(4), 243–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/1931-3896.1.4.243
Niaz, M., Saud de Núñez, G., & Ruiz de Pineda, I. (2000). Academic performance of high school students as a function of mental capacity, cognitive style, mobility–fixity dimension, and creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 34(1), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2000.tb01200.x
Noppe, L. D. (1985). The relationship of formal thought and cognitive styles to creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 19(2), 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.1985.tb00641.x
Noppe, L. D., & Gallagher, J. M. (1977). A cognitive style approach to creative thought. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41(1), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4101_14
Palmiero, M., Giulianella, L., Guariglia, P., Boccia, M., D’Amico, S., & Piccardi, L. (2019). The dancers’ visuospatial body map explains their enhanced divergence in the production of motor forms: Evidence in the early development. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00768
Palmiero, M., Guariglia, P., Crivello, R., & Piccardi, L. (2020). The relationships between musical expertise and divergent thinking. Acta Psychologica, 203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102990
Palmiero, M., Nakatani, Ch., & Leuween, van C. (2017). Visual creativity across cultures: A comparison between Italians and Japanese. Creativity Research Journal, 29(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2017.1263514
Palmiero, M., Nori, R., & Piccardi, L. (2016). Visualizer cognitive style enhances visual creativity. Neuroscience Letters, 615, 98–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2016.01.032
Qian, M., Plucker, J. A., & Yang, X. (2019). Is creativity domain specific or domain general? Evidence from multilevel explanatory item response theory models. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2019.100571
Riding, R. J., & Pearson, R. D. (1987). The relationship between art performance, extraversion and field-independence in secondary-age pupils. Research in Education, 38(1), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/003452378703800103
Rosengren, S., Eisend, M., Koslow, S., & Dahlen, M. (2020). A meta-analysis of when and how advertising creativity works. Journal of Marketing, 84(6), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242920929288
Runco, M. A., & Acar, S. (2012). Divergent thinking as an indicator of creative potential. Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2012.652929
Saeki, N., Fan, X., & Dusen, van L. (2001). A comparative study of creative thinking of American and Japanese college students. Journal of Creative Behavior, 35(1), 24–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2162-6057.2001.tb01219.x
Saracho, O. N. (1992). Preschool children’s cognitive style and play and implications for creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 5(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419209534421
Saurenman, D. A., & Michael, W. B. (1980). Differential placement of high-achieving and low-achieving gifted pupils in grades four, five, and six on measures of field dependence-field independence, creativity, and self-concept. Gifted Child Quarterly, 24(2), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/001698628002400207
Shao, Y., Zhang, Ch., Zhou, J., Gu, T., & Yuan, Y. (2019). How does culture shape creativity? A mini-review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01219
Silvia, P. J., Wigert, B., Reiter-Palmon, R., & Kaufman, J. C. (2012). Assessing creativity with self-report scales: A review and empirical evaluation. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 6(1), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024071
Spotts, J. V., & Mackler, B. (1967). Relationships of field-dependent and field-independent cognitive styles to creative test performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24(1), 239–268. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1967.24.1.239
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (1997). Are cognitive styles still in style? American Psychologist, 52(7), 700–712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.7.700
Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1991). An investment theory of creativity and its development. Human Development, 34(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277029
Wang, Y., Huang, Q., Davison, R. M., & Yang, F. (2021). Role stressors, job satisfaction, and employee creativity: the cross-level moderating role of social media use within teams. Information and Management, 58(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2020.103317
Witkin, H. A., & Asch, S. E. (1948). Studies in space orientation: IV. Further experiments on perception of the upright with displaced visual fields. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(6), 762–782. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0053671
Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field–dependent and field–independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47(1), 1–64. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543047001001
Yuanxi Lee, L., Talhelm, Th., Zhang, X., Hu, B., & Lv, X. (2021). Holistic thinkers process divided-attention tasks faster: From the global/local perspective. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01879-1
Zhang, L. (2017). The value of intellectual styles. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316014561